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The origin of Buddhist art of
painting
The earliest Buddhist art may
be traced back to the Buddha's lifetime although some art historians are of
the view that it originated some centuries after Buddha's great
Parinirvana. We find many exegetical references to strengthen evidences in
the Sutra texts ie Vinaya and Tantra, including Manushrimulakalpa and so
on.
It appears that Buddha
himself considered painting to be an important subject as he mentioned
methods of painting in sutras such as Buddha Pratimalaksana sutra. This is
apparently a very late Buddhist text – perhaps after 10th century AD. These
scriptures explain how to make the image of deities and spiritual figures.
Two kings of Magadha,
Bimbisara and Udrayana wee, very close friends and they would often
exchange gifts. Once, when Udrayana, King of Vatsa sent a priceless gift to
his friend, King Bimbisara responded by deciding to send a painted scroll
of the Buddha. But when the artist began to look at the Buddha, they were
so overwhelmed by the splendor and light emitting from his body that they
could not draw his image. Once seeing this Buddha cast his shadow on a
sheet of cloth and advised the artists to trace it. This supposed to
have been the first painted figure of the Buddha.
Similarly, at one time, the
Buddha, residing in the Nyagrodha Grove at the city of Kapilvastu, was
teaching the Dharma to thousands, including his father Suddhodana, and
queen Mahaprajapati, accompanied by her attendants. Mahanama, the Shakya
asked Buddha to teach his wife obstinate and haughty Sashiprabha. While
Buddha was teaching, Sashiprabha asked her slave girl Rohita to bring her
pearl necklace to show up her beauty. While she was rushing to get pearl
necklace back, she was struck by a cow, and died instantly. She was reborn
in Srilanka as a princess called Muktalata. Showers of pearls fell down
when she took birth therefore named as Multalata( The pearl creeper) when a
group of merchants was traveling to Sri Lanka, they began to chant a hymn
dedicated to Lord Buddha. Princess Muktalata, hearing the songs of the
Buddha, called the merchants to take offering back to Buddha. Lord Buddha
accepted the offerings with pleasure. Lord Buddha in return sent a cloth
painting of himself inscribed with some teachings to Princess Muktalata.
She saw the portrait and deep faith arose in her for the Buddha and
consequently realized the truth and attained the sate of stream entry (skt:
strotapanna). Later, it came to be know as the portrait of
"Rasmimuni" ie (Radiant Saint). It is said to be the second
portrait during the lifetime of Buddha.
History of Nepalese painting
To trace the history of
Buddhist art in Nepal in the pre-Lichchavi period is quite a difficult task
due to the lack of documentary evidence. Nepalese history is documented
only after 464 A.D., the date of a stone inscription at Changu Narayana.
However, the Licchavi Period (400-880 A.D) is said to be the golden age of
Nepalese art. Several very beautiful sculptures dating from this period
have been found. For example Padmapani Bodhisattva image at Srigha vihara
dating 550 A.D is the one best example. Unfortunately, not a single
painting from that period has been found.
It is well known that
Buddhist art was introduced into Tibet from Nepal in the 7th century when
Srong-btsang sgam-po (617-650 AD) married the Nepalese princess Bhrikuti
Devi. The presence of Newar artist in Tibet from the early 7th century to
the mid – 9th century is frequently noted in Tibetan historical works.
Furthermore, "It is fairly certain that there were trading connections
between Nepal and Tibet long before the Tibetans became a recognized
political power". At Lhasa itself, local traditional maintains that
the "Phrul-snang or Jokhang was built by Princess Bhrikuti, the
Nepalese wife of Srong-btsang sgam-po.
The Mani Kabum mentions that
Nepalese artists, commissioned by King Srong-btsang sgam-po, produced the
statue of eleven-faced Avalokitesvara together with statues of Bhrikuti,
Arya Tara, Marici, Sarasvati, Hayagriva and many others in Jokhong Temple
of Lhasa. For example, Srong-btsang sgam-po "commissioned the
celebrated Nepalese craftsman Khre-ba to have 11 images of Avalokitesvara
made which were to be same sizes as the king himself." The Chronicle
of the fifth Dalai Lama also refers to the presence of Nepalese artist in
Tibet at the time of the early kings. Many skillful artists were called
from Nepal to Tibet where they developed a unique artistic tradition.
According to Sir Arel Stein,
Nepalese artists painted part of fresco one of the caves at Dunhoung. If
Stein's judgment is correct, then its date can be assigned to 775-825 AD.
Certainly, more research is needed in this case.
During the time of
Tri-Ralpacan, (806-838) the art of painting in Nepalese-style was
introduced into Tibet. While constructing the Buddhist monastery
"Tashi Gephel", he employed many Nepalese artists for painting in
their Nepali style. Thus, on account of these artisans, the art of painting
in Nepali style thrived in Central and upper Tibet.
Another trend of Nepalese
style of painting became prominent during the time of Yuan dynasty
(1271-1368) in China. Most were commissioned by the Sa-skya-pa school of
Tibetan Buddhism. While there are traces of Bengali-style painting in the
murals of Zhwa-ly monastery, the majority of 13th century paintings found
in Sa- skya monasteries are in Nepalese style.
In 1260, Kublaikhan, the
great ruler of China and suzerain of the Mongol states and Tibet, asked his
spiritual preceptor, lama 'Phags-pas (1235-1280) , to erect a golden pagoda
in Tibet. He extended invitations to over one hundred Newar artists. The
King of Nepal, Jaya Bhima Malla (1258-71) managed to gather only eighty of
them.
Arniko, although only
seventeen years of age, was chosen to lead the expedition. Arniko was
accomplished draughtsman, painter, modeler and metal caster. The erection
of Golden Pagoda was accomplished under his direction in the year 1262.
After its completion he was invited to visit Beijing to construct a White
Pagoda. He manufactured several images and created paintings and developed
a unique system of art blending Newar and Chinese styles.
Arniko introduced Nepalese
artistic styles into Chinese culture. Some of his outstanding paintings and
sculptures are
- Portrait of Emperor Kublaikhan and empress Chabi
- Painting of Green Tara: Now preserved in the
Cleveland Museum of Art, USA
- Mahakala sculpture: dated 1292
- Lacquor Bodhisattva
- Image of Manjusri
The tradition of Arniko
lasted for a long time among Buddhist sculptors in China and is still
upheld in the introduction to an 18 century iconometric treatise, the
Zaoxiang Duliang Jinjie, by the Mongolian scholar Gon-po skyabs(1690-1750).
Newars a prolific Mandala
Makers
In the 15th century, the
Tibetan Master Anandabhadra (Kun-dga bzand-po), founder of Ngor monastery,
invited Nepalese artists to embellish Ngor's chapels. In 1429
A.D., Nepalese artists decorated the chapels of Ngor Monastery with
mandalas, patas and portraits of the Sa-skya-pa school.
It is also known that the
entire series of Vajravali mandalas at E Vam chos idan gyi ri khrod were
painted by skilled Nepalese artists.
Dr P.Pal writes:
"Monasteries of the
Sakyapa religious order in Tibet seemed especially partial to Nepali
craftsman. After the 12th century, when most of the Buddhist Monasteries in
India were destroyed, Nepal filled the vacuum for a time for the Tibetans.
"
The sMan-bris school of art
After the fall of Bengal
following the Islamic incursions of the 13th century, most monasteries in
the Bengal and Bihar were abandoned. Thereafter, Buddhist art was no longer
produced in these regions. A survey of Buddhist Paubha paintings of the
Malla period until the 17th century reveals only slight Indian influences.
According to A.W. Macdonald
and Anne Vergatui Stahl, the Bal-ris movement developed in south Tibet, in
the area around Gyantse, in the 14th and 15th centuries, Bal-ris means
"Nepalese drawing".
Manla Dhondup (b.1440) began
to live in Tsang in southern Tibet. There he met a Nepali artist named
"Dopa Tashi" who was exert in Nepalese style. He studied under
the guidance of Nepali artist with great enthusiasm. After studying,
although he kept the proportion of image, portrait and stupa as before,
made a slight change in the standard of portions in various designs,
religious motifs, colors and compositions, and developed a new pigmentative
style in Tibet, since then the art, which was known as Manri became popular
in Tibet. Manla became his major disciple and learned the Nepalese style of
art from Dopa Tashi Gyalpo.
Later, the sMan-gsar,
mKhan-bris and sgar-bris styles of art were developed successfully.
Although these schools vary from each other in style, all of them
principally follow the iconometric canons. Nepalese artists have been
popular with the Tibetans over the centuries, and were used extensively as
late as 1447, as documented in Gedun drub's construction of Tashi Lhunpo
monastery.
Although in its early stages
Tibetan thangka painting was highly influenced by Nepalese style, after the
16th century, marked differences between the two styles began to appear.
In any discussion of Newar
painting, we cannot overlook the impact of Indian styles, especially Rajput
and Moghul, from the 17th century onwards. There are several examples of
Newar Paubhas, especially long scroll paintings, in which Indian influences
are evident. A paubha painting is sacred art and is extremely difficult to
appreciate without a proper understanding of the religious symbolism they
employ.
The impact of Newari art was
extended not only to Tibet but also to China. A group of Thangkas bear
Chinese Inscription of the Ming period corresponding to the 1474, 1477,
1478, 1479 and 1513. These paintings and related xylographs, dating from
1410 and 1426, have been studied and illustrated by Lowry who points out many
unique Newar stylistic features.
E.F. Lo Bue claims that
Newar influence on Chinese sculpture and painting was not limited to the
Yuan period (1279-1368), but continued during the Ming period, not only
under the Yongle emperor, but also under his successor, as is demonstrated
by the dates in the inscription mentioned above.
Newar artist worked in Tibet
and brought back to Nepal several paintings which had been executed in
Tibetan monasteries. Today in Nepal there are several examples of Newar
Paubha paintings which were executed in Tibet. Newar paintings were
influenced by the Tibetan style from the 17the century onwards, i.e., a
Tibeto-Newar style developed.
An enlarged pantheon enabled
the Newar Artist to paint freely, drawing on imagery from meditation
manuals such as the Sadhanamala and Sadhanasamuccaya.
It is hard to differentiate
between Newar Paubhas and Tibetan Thanka with regard to the poses of the
deities, floral motifs, and the Tantric divinities. Micheal Hutt remarks,
"Nepalese artists became heavily involved in the ornamentation of
temples and monasteries in Tibet, and Tibetan paintings from 9th to 17th
centuries are almost wholly Nepali in style."
Classification of the
Paubhas:
- Nepalese Paintings can be classified into five
types:
- Illustrated manuscript Paintings
- Paubha paintings
- Narrative scroll paintings
- Mural or wall Paintings
Here we are interested in
describing the Paubha paintings.
Near paintings, called
"Paubha" in Newari and "Pata' in Sanskrit, are usually
rectangular in shape and are prepared from colleen woven specially to fit
the dimensions required for each painting. Unlike the Tibetan Thanka, the
Newar Paubha is mostly uniform in size. Tibetans may craft huge thankas
from ceremonial display, as seen in Tahilhumpo monastery or Jokhang Temple,
Tibet or in Paro, Bhutan.
With regard to subject
matter, Paubhas usually portray figures of important divinities, mandalas
of divinities, and monuments surrounded by various figures. These paintings
are mostly created for religious purposes. They were used as aids to
meditation. In the early days of Paubha painting. Both patrons and artists
were motivated by spiritual concerns. Newar Buddhists commissioned Paubha
paintings in order to earn merit, and they were displayed on special
occasions. The paintings, which serve as aids in meditation, were hung on
private alters, in temples and in monasteries. For instance, a large
Paubha, dedicated to Maha Manjushri, was once hung on the walls of
Hiranyavarna Mahavihara during the month of July – August every year. In
the present day, this tradition of displaying Paubhas is now endangered due
to the rise of theft, pollution and commercialization.
It is difficult to determine
when and where Paubha painting originated, owing to the lack of early
Paubha paintings in Nepal. Most early thanka paintings from Tibet appear to
have been strongly influenced by the Nepalese style. So far we do not have
any Nepalese Paubha paintings dating from earlier than the 13th century.
Most ancient Paubha paintings are now preserved not in Nepal but in
American and European Museums. The painting of Amitabha Buddha in the Los
Angeles County Museum is believed to be the earliest Nepalese Paubha
painting. Although the painting is not dated. Its style resembles that of
the manuscript paintings in astasahasrika Prajnaparamita(1015 A.D). Also in
the same style is the Paubha of Ratnasambhava also in the Los Angeles
County Museum(early 13th century). The paubha paintings are not limited to
Buddhist subjects; there are also a few paintings based on Hindu themes.
Nowadays, since Tibetan
thanka painting has become very popular in the world market, when people
speak of thanka, Tibetan thankas are what they have in their mind. The
casual visitor knows nothing about Newar painting and its characteristic
features, and about the uniqueness of these early Newar paintings. Knowing
the importance and features of Newar panting has become essential for these
Nepalese artists wishing to preserve Newar painting as separate style.
Some of the essential features
of Newar Paubha paintings
- one of the special features of Newar Paubha is
that the central figure occupies an ornate frame, an elaborate arch or
a torana dvara, formed by the head of garuda or Tsepu or Kirtimukha, a
mythical creature of Nepal. Holding two snakes.
- The painted surface is divided into sections. In
the larger upper part, the main divinities and their acolytes are
depicted, while the lower part is usually smaller in size, and filled
with depictions of sponsors or donors. Also women are graphically
separated from men, each appearing on opposite sides of the central
divinity or sacrificial fire. This grouping by gender is
characteristic of near painting.
- The profuse use of red color in a softer tone
that the red used by Tibetans.
- Mughal and Rajput influences appear only during
the 17th century
Content or Themes of the
paubha paintings
The subject matter of Paubhas
may be classified as follows:
- Buddha's life and previous lives
- Enlightened beings
- Istadevatas
- Dakas and Dakinis
- Dharmapalas or yakshas
- Mandalas
- Illustration of Dharma
Buddha's life and previous
life
The life of historical Buddha
has been a favorite theme in the art of both Hinayana and Mahayana
traditions since ancient times. In Tibetan Buddhism, the past lives of the
Buddha and the Buddha's twelve principal deeds are also depicted
frequently. They are
- Buddha in Tushita heaven
- Buddha's descent to the world.
- Entry into the womb
- Birth of Buddha in Lumbini
- Bodhisattva Siddhartha's skills in sports and
knowledge
- Four signs of renunciation
- Great departure
- Six years of meditation
- Going to Bodhi mandapa
- Attainment of Perfect enlightenment
- First Dharma Cakrapravartan at Sarnath and
- Great Parinirvana.
Besides, there are works of
art in Buddha's previous lives such as Prince Vishvantara and his
generosity, Prince Mahasattva and his sacrifice of flesh and blood to five
tigress and so forth.
The paubhas of the various
Buddhas other than Shakyamuni Buddha, as well as gurus, Bodhisattva and
Arhats, fall in this category. All the Buddhas may be regarded as gurus in
Vajrayana. However, special importance is placed upon the five
transcendental Buddhas who represent the five wisdoms. Each of these Five
Buddhas embodies the primordial purity of these five defilements, which
obscure our mind. These forms of Buddhas are in face metaphorical
expression of non-dual wisdom and skill in means. They are Sambhogakaya
Buddhas and can perform ceaseless activity for the benefit of all sentient
beings.
Istadevata
Istadevata means
"meditational deity" in the Buddhist context. While the word
istadevata is frequently used to represent the personal deity in Hinduism
as well, [for Hindus] the deity is someone who is god and master, the
one into whom one dissolves one's lesser self; whereas in Buddhism, the
istadevata is the nearest, or personal, deity, symbolizing one's own mind,
a form that may be visualized or meditated on. Using the meditative
techniques of the Developing stage and Completion stage, one proceeds to
the realization of the nature of the mind.
Dakas and Dakinis
Dakas and Dakinis are
supports for the practitioner of Vajrayana Buddhism. They represent inner
refuge in the Tantric Buddhist tradition. Wearing bone ornaments, some are
in dancing posture and some are naked. These Dakas and Dakinis may travel
through space, helping the sadhaka by eliminating obstacles and by guiding
them along the path to Enlightenment. They are able to grant eight great
powers to all devoted sadhakas.
Dharmapalas
Dharmapalas are divinities
who help protect the Buddha dharma from degeneration. They also act as
defenders of Buddha's doctrine. They are in general wrathful in appearance,
and their purpose is to strike terror into potential sinners. In Nepal,
Mahakala is considered to be a great wrathful dharmapala. Their
wrathfulness is directed towards to self-grasping attitude of the general
mass.
Mandalas
The Hevajra Tantra defines a
mandala as that which bears an essence – the essence of the Great Bliss of
enlightened consciousness. The word ‘Mandala' is so called because "it
bears"(Skt: malanad mandalam uchyate). Many (but not all) etymologies
in Buddhist tantra say that mandala consists of "manda", the
essence or contained, and "la", the container. Mandala therefore
means something like "contained essense" in Buddhism. It also
retains it's original Sanskrit meaning of circle – eg Skt.
Chandramandala(moon disc), vayumandala, etc. in Buddhist contexts.
In normal Buddhist practice,
the mandala is depicted as an architectonic entity founded on an elevated
platform, usually in the shape of square. It has four doorways and four
towers, each adorned with garlands, chains and vajra threads, and encircled
by lines of different colors[- a five colored boundary, in which the five
colors correspond to the five tathagatas]. For the purposes of
ritual, it should be drawn with powdered colors, which are ideally made
from the five gems, though acceptable substitutes include the five grains
or powdered bricks and charcoal from the cremation grounds.
Illustrations of Dharma
Illustrations of the dharma
are pictorial expressions of dharma teachings. The wheel of life is a
common subject in this genre. It depicts the totality of the Buddhist
teachings, which include the twelve linked causes constituting dependent
origination, the six realms of existence, the three poisons ie. Namely
lust, hatred ad delusion, and the path of enlightenment.
Conclusion:
We have described very
briefly essential features of Nepalese Paubha paintings with some
historical background and its relation with Tibetan Thangka painting. We
have stated elsewhere that Nepalese Paubha paintings existed long before
the appearance of the Tibetan Thangka painting.
The purpose of this article
is to present a history of Nepalese art and its meaning. Paubha painting
was a sacred art and its production was itself a form of religious Sadhana
because of its sacred character those paintings were placed in the
monasteries and temples where profound respects were paid to them as
objects of devotion and meditation.
But in modern times these
practices have been almost forgotten. As a result, artists began to create
works of art of inferior quality. In the name of creativity some artists
began to introduce even pornographic material into this sacred art in the
name of glamor and creativity and innovation.
In my opinion, the beauty of
Nepalese art lies in the canonical depiction of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas,
deities, Mandalas and so forth handed down through generation. Most of the
beautiful Paubhas and other artifact of Nepal are seen and preserved in the
Western Museum. They value these works of art in high esteem and feel
themselves very proud in possessing them. It is imperative for us to
preserve and keep the glorious artistic tradition of past intact in the
years to come as well.
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